Physical Hazards

Physical hazards that employees in the workplace face include excessive levels of ionizing and nonionizing electromagnetic radiation, noise, vibration, illumination, and temperature.

In occupations where there is exposure to ionizing radiation, time, distance, and shielding are important tools in ensuring worker safety. Danger from radiation increases with the amount of time one is exposed to it; hence, the shorter the time of exposure the smaller the radiation danger.

Distance also is a valuable tool in controlling exposure to both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. Radiation levels from some sources can be estimated by comparing the squares of the distances between the worker and the source. For example, at a reference point of 10 feet from a source, the radiation is 1/100 of the intensity at 1 foot from the source.

Shielding also is a way to protect against radiation. The greater the protective mass between a radioactive source and the worker, the lower the radiation exposure.

Nonionizing radiation also is dealt with by shielding workers from the source. Sometimes limiting exposure times to nonionizing radiation or increasing the distance is not effective. Laser radiation, for example, cannot be controlled effectively by imposing time limits. An exposure can be hazardous that is faster than the blinking of an eye. Increasing the distance from a laser source may require miles before the energy level reaches a point where the exposure would not be harmful.

Noise, another significant physical hazard, can be controlled by various measures. Noise can be reduced by installing equipment and systems that have been engineered, designed, and built to operate quietly; by enclosing or shielding noisy equipment; by making certain that equipment is in good repair and properly maintained with all worn or unbalanced parts replaced; by mounting noisy equipment on special mounts to reduce vibration; and by installing silencers, mufflers, or baffles.

Substituting quiet work methods for noisy ones is another significant way to reduce noise, for example, welding parts rather than riveting them. Also, treating floors, ceilings, and walls with acoustical material can reduce reflected or reverberant noise. In addition, erecting sound barriers at adjacent work stations around noisy operations will reduce worker exposure to noise generated at adjacent work stations.

It is also possible to reduce noise exposure by increasing the distance between the source and the receiver, by isolating workers in acoustical booths, limiting workers' exposure time to noise, and by providing hearing protection. OSHA requires that workers in noisy surroundings be periodically tested as a precaution against hearing loss.

Another physical hazard, radiant heat exposure in factories such as steel mills, can be controlled by installing reflective shields and by providing protective clothing.

Ionizing & Non-Ionizing Radiation

The electromagnetic spectrum.
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Radiation having a wide range of energies form the electromagnetic spectrum, which is illustrated to the right. The spectrum has two major divisions:

• Non-ionizing radiation
• Ionizing radiation

Non-ionizing Radiation

Non-ionizing radiation ranges from extremely low frequency radiation, shown on the far left through the audible, microwave, and visible portions of the spectrum into the ultraviolet range.

Extremely low-frequency radiation has very long wave lengths (on the order of a million meters or more) and frequencies in the range of 100 Hertz or cycles per second or less. Radio frequencies have wave lengths of between 1 and 100 meters and frequencies in the range of 1 million to 100 million Hertz. Microwaves that we use to heat food have wavelengths that are about 1 hundredth of a meter long and have frequencies of about 2.5 billion Hertz.

We take advantage of the properties of non-ionizing radiation for common tasks:

• Microwave radiation-- telecommunications and heating food
• Infrared radiation --infrared lamps to keep food warm in restaurants
• radio waves-- broadcasting

Ionizing Radiation

Radiation that falls within the ionizing radiation" range has enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms, thus creating ions. This is the type of radiation that people usually think of as 'radiation.' We take advantage of its properties to generate electric power, to kill cancer cells, and in many manufacturing processes.

There are three main kinds of ionizing radiation:

• Alpha particles, which include two protons and two neutrons
• Beta particles, which are essentially electrons
• Gamma rays and x-rays, which are pure energy (photons).

Higher frequency ultraviolet radiation begins to have enough energy to break chemical bonds. X-ray and gamma ray radiation, which are at the upper end of magnetic radiation have very high frequency --in the range of 100 billion billion Hertz--and very short wavelengths--1 million millionth of a meter. Radiation in this range has extremely high energy. It has enough energy to strip off electrons or, in the case of very high-energy radiation, break up the nucleus of atoms.

Noise

Every year, millions of people in the United States are exposed to hazardous noise at work. Noise-related hearing loss has been listed as one of the most prevalent occupational health concerns in the United States for many years.

Exposure to high levels of noise can cause permanent hearing loss. Neither surgery nor a hearing aid can help correct this type of hearing loss. Short term exposure to loud noise can also cause a temporary change in hearing (your ears may feel stuffed up) or a ringing in your ears (tinnitus). These short-term problems may go away within a few minutes or hours after leaving the noisy area. However, repeated exposures to loud noise can lead to permanent tinnitus and/or hearing loss.

Loud noise can also create physical and psychological stress, reduce productivity, interfere with communication and concentration, and contribute to workplace accidents and injuries by making it difficult to hear warning signals. Noise-induced hearing loss limits your ability to hear high frequency sounds, understand speech, and seriously impairs your ability to communicate. The effects of hearing loss can be profound, as hearing loss can interfere with your ability to enjoy socializing with friends, playing with your children or grandchildren, or participating in other social activities you enjoy, and can lead to psychological and social isolation.

How Does the Ear Work?

Anatomy of the Inner Ear
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When sound waves enter the outer ear, the vibrations impact the ear drum and are transmitted to the middle and inner ear. In the middle ear three small bones called the malleus (or hammer), the incus (or anvil), and the stapes (or stirrup) amplify and transmit the vibrations generated by the sound to the inner ear. The inner ear contains a snail-like structure called the cochlea which is filled with fluid and lined with cells with very fine hairs. These microscopic hairs move with the vibrations and convert the sound waves into nerve impulses - the result is the sound we hear.

Exposure to loud noise can destroy these hair cells and cause hearing loss!

Warning Signs of Noisy Workplace

Noise may be a problem in your workplace if:

• You hear ringing or humming in your ears when you leave work.
• You have to shout to be heard by a coworker an arm's length away.
• You experience temporary hearing loss when leaving work.

Noise (Continued)

Typical Sound Levels
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Noise is measured in units of sound pressure levels called decibels, named after Alexander Graham Bell, using A-weighted sound levels (dBA). The A-weighted sound levels closely match the perception of loudness by the human ear. Decibels are measured on a logarithmic scale which means that a small change in the number of decibels results in a huge change in the amount of noise and the potential damage to a person's hearing.

OSHA sets legal limits on noise exposure in the workplace. These limits are based on a worker's time weighted average over an 8 hour day. With noise, OSHA's permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 90 dBA for all workers for an 8 hour day. The OSHA standard uses a 5 dBA exchange rate. This means that when the noise level is increased by 5 dBA, the amount of time a person can be exposed to a certain noise level to receive the same dose is cut in half.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has recommended that all worker exposures to noise should be controlled below a level equivalent to 85 dBA for eight hours to minimize occupational noise induced hearing loss. NIOSH has found that significant noise-induced hearing loss occurs at the exposure levels equivalent to the OSHA PEL based on updated information obtained from literature reviews. NIOSH also recommends a 3 dBA exchange rate so that every increase by 3 dBA doubles the amount of the noise and halves the recommended amount of exposure time.

Here's an example: OSHA allows 8 hours of exposure to 90 dBA but only 2 hours of exposure to 100 dBA sound levels. NIOSH would recommend limiting the 8 hour exposure to less than 85 dBA. At 100 dBA, NIOSH recommends less than 15 minutes of exposure per day.

In 1981, OSHA implemented new requirements to protect all workers in general industry (e.g. the manufacturing and the service sectors) for employers to implement a Hearing Conservation Program where workers are exposed to a time weighted average noise level of 85 dBA or higher over an 8 hour work shift. Hearing Conservation Programs require employers to measure noise levels, provide free annual hearing exams and free hearing protection, provide training, and conduct evaluations of the adequacy of the hearing protectors in use unless changes to tools, equipment and schedules are made so that they are less noisy and worker exposure to noise is less than the 85 dBA.

Noise (Continued)

Reducing Noise Hazards

Noise controls are the first line of defense against excessive noise exposure. The use of these controls should aim to reduce the hazardous exposure to the point where the risk to hearing is eliminated or minimized. With the reduction of even a few decibels, the hazard to hearing is reduced, communication is improved, and noise-related annoyance is reduced. There are several ways to control and reduce worker exposure to noise in a workplace.

Examples of Engineering Controls
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Engineering controls that reduce sound exposure levels are available and technologically feasible for most noise sources. Engineering controls involve modifying or replacing equipment, or making related physical changes at the noise source or along the transmission path to reduce the noise level at the worker's ear. In some instances the application of a relatively simple engineering noise control solution reduces the noise hazard to the extent that further requirements of the OSHA Noise standard (e.g., audiometric testing (hearing tests), hearing conservation program, provision of hearing protectors, etc...) are not necessary. Examples of inexpensive, effective engineering controls include some of the following:

• Choose low-noise tools and machinery (e.g., Buy Quiet Roadmap (NASA)).
• Maintain and lubricate machinery and equipment (e.g., oil bearings).
• Place a barrier between the noise source and employee (e.g., sound walls or curtains).
• Enclose or isolate the noise source.

Noise (Continued)

As the distance from the sound source increases, decibel levels decrease.
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Administrative controls are changes in the workplace that reduce or eliminate the worker exposure to noise. Examples include:

• Operating noisy machines during shifts when fewer people are exposed.
• Limiting the amount of time a person spends at a noise source.
• Providing quiet areas where workers can gain relief from hazardous noise sources (e.g., construct a sound proof room where workers' hearing can recover - depending upon their individual noise level and duration of exposure, and time spent in the quiet area).
• Restricting worker presence to a suitable distance away from noisy equipment.

Controlling noise exposure through distance is often an effective, yet simple and inexpensive administrative control. This control may be applicable when workers are present but are not actually working with a noise source or equipment. Increasing the distance between the noise source and the worker, reduces their exposure. In open space, for every doubling of the distance between the source of noise and the worker, the sound level of the noise is decreased by 6.02 dB. No matter what the scale of measurement, you will get about a 6 dB sound level drop for every doubling of distance. You can see how this works by entering values in the table below.

Calculating the Decrease in Sound Level as Distance Increases

Hearing protection devices (HPDs), such as earmuffs and plugs, are considered an acceptable but less desirable option to control exposures to noise and are generally used during the time necessary to implement engineering or administrative controls, when such controls are not feasible, or when worker's hearing tests indicate significant hearing damage.

An effective hearing conservation program must be implemented by employers in general industry whenever worker noise exposure is equal to or greater than 85 dBA for an 8 hour exposure or in the construction industry when exposures exceed 90 dBA for an 8 hour exposure. This program strives to prevent initial occupational hearing loss, preserve and protect remaining hearing, and equip workers with the knowledge and hearing protection devices necessary to protect them. Key elements of an effective hearing conservation program include:

• Workplace noise sampling including personal noise monitoring which identifies which employees are at risk from hazardous levels of noise.
• Informing workers at risk from hazardous levels of noise exposure of the results of their noise monitoring.
• Providing affected workers or their authorized representatives with an opportunity to observe any noise measurements conducted.
• Maintaining a worker audiometric testing program (hearing tests) which is a professional evaluation of the health effects of noise upon individual worker's hearing.
• Implementing comprehensive hearing protection follow-up procedures for workers who show a loss of hearing (standard threshold shift) after completing baseline (first) and yearly audiometric testing.
• Proper selection of hearing protection based upon individual fit and manufacturer's quality testing indicating the likely protection that they will provide to a properly trained wearer.
• Evaluate the hearing protectors attenuatum and effectiveness for the specific workplace noise.
• Training and information that ensures the workers are aware of the hazard from excessive noise exposures and how to properly use the protective equipment that has been provided.
• Data management of and worker access to records regarding monitoring and noise sampling.

Vibration

Various kinds of tools may cause vibration that could lead to "white fingers" or hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS). This is especially dangerous when proper damping techniques are not applied, if machines are not maintained, if tools are not alternated, or if a worker uses a vibrating tool for consecutive hours during a workday. Workers need to be trained on the hazards of working with vibrating tools, and should always allow the tool or machine to do the work.

Potential Hazards

Both hand-held and stationary tools that transmit vibration through a work piece can cause vibration "white fingers" or hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS). White fingers, or Raynaud's Syndrome, is a disease of the hands in which the blood vessels in the fingers collapse due to repeated exposure to vibration. The skin and muscle tissue do not get the oxygen they need and eventually die. HAVS is a more advanced condition, and the entire hand or arm may be affected by exposure to vibration. Early signs of HAVS are infrequent feelings of numbness and/or tingling in the fingers, hands, or arms, or numbness and whiteness in the tip of the finger when exposed to cold. As the disease progresses, a worker experiences more frequent attacks of numbness, tingling, and pain and finds it difficult to use his or her hands. A worker with advanced HAVS may be disabled for a long amount of time.

Possible Solutions

Engineering Controls

Vibration isolators or damping techniques on equipment offer the most effective protection. Isolate machine vibrations from the surface if it is mounted or by use of vibration isolation mounts. Vibrating panels of machine housings and guards may be controlled by use of damping materials applied to the panels. Felts, liquid mastics, and elastomeric damping sheets are effective damping materials. Determining the correct type and quantity of damping material to use for a particular machine is a complicated process and should be left to a knowledgeable person. The frequency emitted by the machine, the noise reduction level desired, and the weight and size of the machine are factors to consider. A good rule of thumb, however, is that the damping layer should be the same thickness as the surfaces being treated.

Work Practices

• Maintain machines in proper working order. Unbalanced rotating parts or unsharpened cutting tools can give off excessive vibration.
• Arrange work tasks so that vibrating and nonvibrating tools can be used alternately.
• Restrict the number of hours a worker uses a vibrating tool during the workday. Allow employees to take 10 to 15 minute breaks from the source of the vibration every hour.
• Train workers about the hazards of working with vibrating tools. Instruction should include: the sources of vibration exposure, early signs and symptoms of hand-arm vibration syndrome, and work practices for minimizing vibration exposure.
• Instruct workers to keep their hands warm and dry, and to not grip a vibrating tool too tightly. Workers should allow the tool or machine to do the work.

Illumination

OSHA Standard: 1915.82, 1926.26, and 1926.56

Potential Hazards:

Inadequate or poor-quality lighting systems can lead to:

• Slips, trips, and falls.
• Electric shocks and burns.
• The inability to exit the space.

Requirements and Example Solutions:

• Temporary lights must have guards or be recessed to prevent accidental contact with the bulb.
• Temporary lights must:
• Be equipped with heavy duty electric cords.

• Not be suspended by their electric cords.
• Have splices equal to the insulation of the cable.
• Cords must be protected from damage.
• Exposed non-current-carrying metal parts of temporary lights must be properly grounded.
• Temporary lighting must be equipped with overcurrent protection such as fuses or circuit breakers.
• In dark areas that do not have permanent or temporary lights, portable emergency lighting such as flashlights or light sticks must be provided.
• Workers must not enter dark spaces without a suitable portable light.
• Burning torches should not be used to illuminate work areas.

Construction areas, ramps, runways, corridors, offices, shops, and storage areas shall be lighted to not less than the minimum illumination intensities listed above in the link to OSHA Standard 1926.56 while any work is in progress.

Heat

Office Temperature/Humidity

As a general rule, office temperature and humidity are matters of human comfort. OSHA has no regulations specifically addressing temperature and humidity in an office setting. However, Section III, Chapter 2, Subsection V of the OSHA Technical Manual, "Recommendations for the Employer," provides engineering and administrative guidance to prevent or alleviate indoor air quality problems. Air treatment is defined under the engineering recommendations as, "the removal of air contaminants and/or the control of room temperature and humidity." OSHA recommends temperature control in the range of 68-76 degrees Fahrenheit and humidity control in the range of 20%-60%.

Non-Office Work Environments

Operations involving high air temperatures, radiant heat sources, high humidity, direct physical contact with hot objects, or strenuous physical activities have a high potential for inducing heat stress in employees engaged in such operations. Such places include: iron and steel foundries, nonferrous foundries, brick-firing and ceramic plants, glass products facilities, rubber products factories, electrical utilities (particularly boiler rooms), bakeries, confectioneries, commercial kitchens, laundries, food canneries, chemical plants, mining sites, smelters, and steam tunnels.

Outdoor operations conducted in hot weather, such as construction, refining, asbestos removal, and hazardous waste site activities, especially those that require workers to wear semipermeable or impermeable protective clothing, are also likely to cause heat stress among exposed workers.

Heat (Continued)

Ventilation, air cooling, fans, shielding, and insulation are the five major types of engineering controls used to reduce heat stress in hot work environments. Heat reduction can also be achieved by using power assists and tools that reduce the physical demands placed on a worker.

However, for this approach to be successful, the metabolic effort required for the worker to use or operate these devices must be less than the effort required without them. Another method is to reduce the effort necessary to operate power assists. The worker should be allowed to take frequent rest breaks in a cooler environment.

Engineering Controls

1. General ventilation is used to dilute hot air with cooler air (generally cooler air that is brought in from the outside). This technique clearly works better in cooler climates than in hot ones. A permanently installed ventilation system usually handles large areas or entire buildings. Portable or local exhaust systems may be more effective or practical in smaller areas.
2. Air treatment/air cooling differs from ventilation because it reduces the temperature of the air by removing heat (and sometimes humidity) from the air.
3. Air conditioning is a method of air cooling, but it is expensive to install and operate. An alternative to air conditioning is the use of chillers to circulate cool water through heat exchangers over which air from the ventilation system is then passed; chillers are more efficient in cooler climates or in dry climates where evaporative cooling can be used.
4. Local air cooling can be effective in reducing air temperature in specific areas. Two methods have been used successfully in industrial settings. One type, cool rooms, can be used to enclose a specific workplace or to offer a recovery area near hot jobs. The second type is a portable blower with built-in air chiller. The main advantage of a blower, aside from portability, is minimal set-up time.
5. Another way to reduce heat stress is to increase the air flow or convection using fans, etc. in the work area (as long as the air temperature is less than the worker's skin temperature). Changes in air speed can help workers stay cooler by increasing both the convective heat exchange (the exchange between the skin surface and the surrounding air) and the rate of evaporation. Because this method does not actually cool the air, any increases in air speed must impact the worker directly to be effective. If the dry bulb temperature is higher than 35 degrees Celsius (95 degrees Fahrenheit), the hot air passing over the skin can actually make the worker hotter. When the temperature is more than 35°C and the air is dry, evaporative cooling may be improved by air movement, although this improvement will be offset by the convective heat. When the temperature exceeds 35 degrees Celsius and the relative humidity is 100%, air movement will make the worker hotter. Increases in air speed have no effect on the body temperature of workers wearing vapor-barrier clothing.
6. Heat conduction methods include insulating the hot surface that generates the heat and changing the surface itself.
7. Simple engineering controls, such as shields, can be used to reduce radiant heat, i.e. heat coming from hot surfaces within the worker's line of sight. Surfaces that exceed 35 degrees Celsius (95 degrees Fahrenheit) are sources of infrared radiation that can add to the worker's heat load. Flat black surfaces absorb heat more than smooth, polished ones. Having cooler surfaces surrounding the worker assists in cooling because the worker's body radiates heat toward them. With some sources of radiation, such as heating pipes, it is possible to use both insulation and surface modifications to achieve a substantial reduction in radiant heat. Instead of reducing radiation from the source, shielding can be used to interrupt the path between the source and the worker. Polished surfaces make the best barriers, although special glass or metal mesh surfaces can be used if visibility is a problem. Shields should be located so that they do not interfere with air flow, unless they are also being used to reduce convective heating. The reflective surface of the shield should be kept clean to maintain its effectiveness.

Heat (Continued)

Administrative Controls and Work Practices

Training is the key to good work practices. Unless all employees understand the reasons for using new, or changing old, work practices, the chances of such a program succeeding are greatly reduced.

NIOSH (1986) states that a good heat stress training program should include at least the following components:

• Knowledge of the hazards of heat stress;
• Recognition of predisposing factors, danger signs, and symptoms;
• Awareness of first-aid procedures for, and the potential health effects of, heat stroke;
• Employee responsibilities in avoiding heat stress;
• Dangers of using drugs, including therapeutic ones, and alcohol in hot work environments;
• Use of protective clothing and equipment; and
• Purpose and coverage of environmental and medical surveillance programs and the advantages of worker participation in such programs.

Hot jobs should be scheduled for the cooler part of the day, and routine maintenance and repair work in hot areas should be scheduled for the cooler seasons of the year.

Other Administrative Controls

The following administrative controls can be used to reduce heat stress:

• Reduce the physical demands of work, e.g., excessive lifting or digging with heavy objects;
• Provide recovery areas, e.g., air-conditioned enclosures and rooms;
• Use shifts, e.g., early morning, cool part of the day, or night work;
• Use intermittent rest periods with water breaks;
• Use relief workers;
• Use worker pacing; and
• Assign extra workers and limit worker occupancy, or the number of workers present, especially in confined or enclosed spaces.

See OSHAcademy Course 602: Heat and Cold Stress Safety for tips to protect workers in extreme temperatures.

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